Anode with remarkable stability under conditions of extreme fuel starvation

ABSTRACT

A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) includes a cathode electrode, a solid oxide electrolyte, and an anode electrode having a first portion and a second portion, such that the first portion is located between the electrolyte and the second portion. The anode electrode comprises a cermet comprising a nickel containing phase and a ceramic phase. The first portion of the anode electrode contains a lower porosity and a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second portion of the anode electrode.

The present application claims benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/852,396 filed on Oct. 18, 2006, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is generally directed to fuel cell components, and to solid oxide fuel cell anode materials in particular.

Fuel cells are electrochemical devices which can convert energy stored in fuels to electrical energy with high efficiencies. Electrolyzer cells are electrochemical devices which can use electrical energy to reduce a given material, such as water, to generate a fuel, such as hydrogen. The fuel and electrolyzer cells may comprise reversible cells which operate in both fuel cell and electrolysis mode.

In a high temperature fuel cell system, such as a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) system, an oxidizing flow is passed through the cathode side of the fuel cell while a fuel flow is passed through the anode side of the fuel cell. The oxidizing flow is typically air, while the fuel flow can be a hydrocarbon fuel, such as methane, natural gas, pentane, ethanol, or methanol. The fuel cell, operating at a typical temperature between 750° C. and 950° C., enables the transport of negatively charged oxygen ions from the cathode flow stream to the anode flow stream, where the ion combines with either free hydrogen or hydrogen in a hydrocarbon molecule to form water vapor and/or with carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide. The excess electrons from the negatively charged ion are routed back to the cathode side of the fuel cell through an electrical circuit completed between anode and cathode, resulting in an electrical current flow through the circuit. A solid oxide reversible fuel cell (SORFC) system generates electrical energy and reactant product (i.e., oxidized fuel) from fuel and oxidizer in a fuel cell or discharge mode and generates the fuel and oxidant using electrical energy in an electrolysis or charge mode.

Anode electrodes operating under conditions of extreme fuel starvation are usually irreversibly damaged. Such starvation conditions are usually encountered in stacks where isolated repeat elements (i.e., specific fuel cells) obtain less fuel than their neighboring elements (i.e., the neighboring fuel cells). These elements witness effective fuel utilization in excess of 100%. Similar conditions may arise during system transitions or operating anomalies where the fuel supply to the cell does not correspond to the current drawn. Under these circumstances, the oxygen ion flux to the anode will oxidize the anode constituents. Nickel present at the three phase boundary of traditional anodes will instantaneously oxidize. The phase change from Ni metal to NiO is accompanied by a change in volume that causes mechanical damage at the anode/electrolyte interface. This mechanical damage is characterized by delamination of the electrode from the electrolyte which increases the specific resistance of the cell and dramatically decreases the stack performance. To avoid oxidation of the nickel and mechanical damage of the electrode electrolyte interface, which leads to delamination, one prior art solution was to employ an all ceramic anode. While the ceramic anodes show better stability in starvation conditions, they are associated with high polarization losses.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

One aspect of the present invention provides a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) comprising a cathode electrode, a solid oxide electrolyte, and an anode electrode comprising a first portion and a second portion, such that the first portion is located between the electrolyte and the second portion. The anode electrode comprises a cermet comprising a nickel containing phase and a ceramic phase. The first portion of the anode electrode contains a lower porosity and a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second portion of the anode electrode.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate side cross-sectional views and FIG. 3 illustrates a top view of SOFCs of the embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 4 illustrates a side cross sectional view of a SOFC stack of an embodiment of the invention.

FIGS. 5A-5D are micrographs of an anode sublayers of embodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are plots of cell potential versus time for a ten cell stack containing cells according to an embodiment of the invention and cells according to a comparative example.

FIGS. 7A, 7B and 7C are resistance bar graphs for the ten cells of the stack containing cells according to an embodiment of the invention and cells according to a comparative example.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

The embodiments of the invention provide anode electrodes for solid oxide fuel cells, such as reversible SOFCs (i.e., SORFC) and non-reversible SOFCs, that do not irreversibly deteriorate under conditions of fuel starvation. The anode electrodes are highly active and show low polarization losses that are comparable to prior art Ni—YSZ anodes. However, they also show a marked improvement in their capability to operate under conditions of fuel starvation. Furthermore, after the starvation event, the performance of the anode electrodes of the embodiments of the invention is hardly affected.

The anode electrode of one embodiment of the invention comprises a cermet comprising a nickel containing phase and a ceramic phase. The nickel containing phase preferably consists entirely of nickel in a reduced state. This phase forms nickel oxide when it is in an oxidized state. Thus, the anode electrode is preferably annealed in a reducing atmosphere prior to operation to reduce the nickel oxide to nickel. The nickel containing phase may include other metals in additional to nickel and/or nickel alloys. The nickel is preferably finely distributed in the ceramic phase, with an average grain size less than 500 nanometers, such as 200 to 400 nanometers, to reduce the stresses induced when nickel converts to nickel oxide. The ceramic phase preferably comprises a doped ceria, such as a samaria, gadolinia or yttria doped ceria (in other words, the ceria may contain Sm, Gd and/or Y dopant element which forms an oxide upon incorporation into the ceria). Preferably, the doped ceria phase composition comprises Ce_((1-x))A_(x)O₂, where A comprises at least one of Sm, Gd, or Y, and x is greater than 0.1 but less than 0.4. For example, x may range from 0.15 to 0.3 and may be equal to 0.2. Samaria doped ceria (SDC) is preferred. Furthermore, the doped ceria may be non-stoichiometric, and contain more than or less than two oxygen atoms for each one metal atom. Alternatively, the ceramic phase comprises a different mixed ionic and electrically conductive phase, such as a perovskite ceramic phase, such as (La, Sr)(Mn,Cr)O₃, which includes LSM, lanthanum strontium chromite, (La_(x)Sr_(1-x))(Mn_(y)Cr_(1-y))O₃ where 0.6≦x≦0.9, 0.1≦y≦0.4, such as x=0.8, y=0.2, etc.

In one embodiment of the invention, the anode electrode contains less nickel phase in a portion near the electrolyte than in a portion near the electrode surface distal from the electrode (i.e., the “free” electrode surface which faces away from the electrolyte). In another embodiment of the invention, the anode electrode contains less porosity in a portion near the electrolyte than in a portion near the “free” electrode surface distal from the electrode. Preferably, the anode electrode contains less nickel and less porosity in the portion near the electrolyte.

FIG. 1 illustrates a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) 1 according to an embodiment of the invention. The cell 1 includes an anode electrode 3, a solid oxide electrolyte 5 and a cathode electrode 7. The electrolyte 5 may comprise a stabilized zirconia, such as scandia stabilized zirconia (SSZ) or yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ). Alternatively, the electrolyte 5 may comprise another ionically conductive material, such as a doped ceria. The cathode electrode 7 may comprise an electrically conductive material, such as an electrically conductive perovskite material, such as lanthanum strontium manganite (LSM). Other conductive perovskites, such as LSCo, etc., or metals, such as Pt, may also be used.

As shown in FIG. 1, the anode electrode 3 comprises a first portion 13 and a second portion 23. The first portion 13 is located between the electrolyte 5 and the second portion 23. As noted above, preferably, the first portion of the anode electrode 13 contains a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second portion 23 of the anode electrode. Furthermore, preferably, the first portion of the anode electrode 13 contains a lower porosity than the second portion 23 of the anode electrode. Thus, the porosity and the ratio of the nickel phase to the ceramic phase increases in as a function of thickness of the anode electrode 3 in a direction from the electrolyte 5 to the opposite surface of the anode electrode 3.

For example, the first portion 13 of the anode electrode may contain a porosity of 5-30 volume percent and a nickel phase content of 1 to 20 volume percent. The second portion 23 of the anode electrode may contain a porosity of 31 to 60 volume percent and a nickel phase content of 21 to 60 volume percent.

In one embodiment, the first 13 and the second 23 portions of the anode electrode 3 comprise separate sublayers. Thus, the first region 13 comprises a first sublayer in contact with the electrolyte 5 and the second region 23 comprises a second sublayer located over the first sublayer 13. The first sublayer 13 contains a lower porosity and lower nickel to doped ceria ratio than the second sublayer 23

The first sublayer 13 may contain between 1 and 15 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 5 and 30 percent pores, such as between 5 and 20 or between 15 and 25 volume percent pores, and remainder the doped ceria phase, for example between 1 and 5 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 5 and 10 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase. The second sublayer 23 contains over 20 volume percent nickel containing phase, between 20 and 60 volume percent pores, such as between 40 and 50 percent pores, and remainder the doped ceria phase, such as between 30 and 50 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 30 and 50 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase. In the first sublayer 13, the volume ratio of the nickel containing phase to the doped ceria containing phase may range from 1:8 to 1:10, for example 1:9. In the second sublayer 23, the volume ratio of the nickel containing phase to the doped ceria containing phase may range from 3:1 to 5:1, for example 4:1. The first sublayer 13 may contain between 5 and 25 weight percent nickel containing phase, such as between 10 and 20 weight percent nickel containing phase, and between 75 and 95 weight percent doped ceria containing phase, such as between 80 and 90 weight percent doped ceria phase. The second sublayer 23 may contain between 60 and 85 weight percent nickel containing phase, such as between 70 and 75 weight percent nickel containing phase, and between 15 and 40 weight percent doped ceria containing phase, such as between 25 and 30 weight percent doped ceria phase. Optionally, sublayers 13 and/or 23 may contain other materials or phases besides the nickel containing phase and the doped ceria containing phase.

Thus, the anode electrode 3 contains plurality of sublayers, each varying in composition, structure and nickel content. Each layer is approximately 3-30 microns thick, such as 5-10 microns thick, for example. The first layer in contact with the electrolyte has a higher density and lower nickel content than the one or more layers further away from the electrolyte. A porosity gradient is established ranging from approximately 5-15% close to the electrolyte and increasing to about 50% at the anode electrode's free surface. The nickel content in the electrode increases in a similar manner as the porosity.

In another embodiment of the invention, each of the first 13 and second 23 regions may comprise plural sublayers. For example, each region 13, 23 may contain two sublayers, such that the anode electrode 3 contains a total of four sublayers. In this case, the first region 13 comprises a first sublayer in contact with the electrolyte and a second sublayer located over the first sublayer, while the second region 23 comprises a third sublayer located over the second sublayer and a fourth sublayer located over the third sublayer. In this configuration, a porosity of the anode electrode increases from the first sublayer to the fourth sublayer and the nickel phase content of the anode electrode increases from the first sublayer to the fourth sublayer. In other words, the sublayer which contacts the electrolyte 5 has the lowest porosity and nickel phase content, while the sublayer which is located farthest from the electrolyte contains the highest porosity and nickel phase content (and the lowest doped ceria phase content).

For example, the first sublayer closest to the electrolyte 5 may contain between 1 and 5 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 5 and 15 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase. The second sublayer may contain between 6 and 20 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 20 and 40 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase. The third sublayer may contain between 25 and 35 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 30 and 50 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase. The fourth sublayer which is farthest from the electrolyte 5 may contain between 35 and 45 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 40 and 60 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase.

In another embodiment of the invention shown in FIG. 2, the anode electrode 3 comprises a single layer having a graded composition. In the anode electrode 3 shown in FIG. 2, the volume fraction of the nickel containing phase and a porosity in the anode electrode increases from an interface between the electrolyte 5 and the anode electrode 3 to the “free” surface of the anode electrode distal from the electrolyte 5.

In another embodiment of the invention shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, a first region 3A of the anode electrode 3 located adjacent to a fuel inlet 4 contains a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second region 3B of the anode electrode located adjacent to a fuel outlet 6. The first 3A and the second 3B regions are located adjacent to a surface of the anode electrode distal from the electrolyte 5.

For example, in stacks which are internally manifolded for fuel, the fuel inlet 4 comprises a fuel inlet riser opening. A fuel inlet riser is a series of connected openings through the gas separator plates and/or through one or more layers of the SOFC, such as the anode, cathode, and/or electrolyte. The SOFC also contains a corresponding fuel outlet 6. It should be noted that the fuel cells do not necessarily have to be internally manifolded and may comprise externally manifolded cells. In this case, the fuel inlet and outlet comprise openings from a fuel manifold near the edges of the fuel cells.

Thus, as shown in FIG. 3, the region 3A adjacent to the fuel inlet 4 is relatively nickel poor and doped ceria rich, while the region 3B adjacent to the fuel outlet is relatively nickel rich and doped ceria poor. Regions 3A and 3B may have the same area as each other or they may have a different area from each other. While the boundary line 3C between the regions 3A, 3B is shown as a straight line in FIG. 3, this boundary 3C may have other shapes, such as a curved line (convex toward inlet 4 or outlet 6), a jagged line, a battlement shaped line, or other zigzag or non-straight shaped line. Furthermore, instead of a sharp boundary line 3C between regions 3A and 3B, the nickel content may gradually increase from inlet 4 to outlet 6 while the doped ceria content may gradually decrease from inlet 4 to outlet 6.

FIG. 2 shows an embodiment of the invention in which the nickel content varies in two directions in the anode electrode. For example, the nickel content varies in the thickness direction of the anode electrode as well as in the fuel flow direction from the fuel inlet to the fuel outlet. The fuel flow stream enters the SOFC 1 at fuel inlet 4 and exits at fuel outlet 6, as shown by the arrow in FIG. 2. Thus, the nickel content increases and the doped ceria content decreases in: i) the thickness direction from an interface between the electrolyte 5 and the anode electrode 3 to the “free” surface of the anode electrode distal from the electrolyte 5, and ii) in the direction from the fuel inlet 4 to the fuel outlet 6. The low nickel/high doped ceria regions in the anode electrode 3 are shown in FIG. 2 in darker color than the high nickel/low doped ceria regions. Thus, as shown in FIG. 2, the lower left quadrant of the anode electrode 3 adjacent to the fuel inlet 4 and adjacent to the electrolyte 5 contains a lowest ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase in the anode electrode. The upper right quadrant of the anode electrode 3 adjacent to the fuel outlet 6 and distal from the electrolyte 5 contains a highest ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase in the anode electrode. For example, the upper right quadrant may contain an 80:20 volume ratio of the nickel phase to the doped ceria phase.

Fuel cell stacks are frequently built from a multiplicity of SOFC's 1 in the form of planar elements, tubes, or other geometries. Fuel and air has to be provided to the electrochemically active surface, which can be large. As shown in FIG. 4, one component of a fuel cell stack is the so called gas flow separator (referred to as a gas flow separator plate in a planar stack) 9 that separates the individual cells in the stack. The gas flow separator plate separates fuel, such as a hydrocarbon fuel, flowing to the fuel electrode (i.e. anode 3) of one cell in the stack from oxidant, such as air, flowing to the air electrode (i.e. cathode 7) of an adjacent cell in the stack. The separator 9 contains gas flow passages or channels 8 between the ribs 10. Frequently, the gas flow separator plate 9 is also used as an interconnect which electrically connects the fuel electrode 3 of one cell to the air electrode 7 of the adjacent cell. In this case, the gas flow separator plate which functions as an interconnect is made of or contains electrically conductive material. An electrically conductive contact layer, such as a nickel contact layer, may be provided between the anode electrode and the interconnect. FIG. 4 shows that the lower SOFC 1 is located between two gas separator plates 9.

Furthermore, while FIG. 4 shows that the stack comprises a plurality of planar or plate shaped fuel cells, the fuel cells may have other configurations, such as tubular. Still further, while vertically oriented stacks are shown in FIG. 4, the fuel cells may be stacked horizontally or in any other suitable direction between vertical and horizontal.

The term “fuel cell stack,” as used herein, means a plurality of stacked fuel cells which share a common fuel inlet and exhaust passages or risers. The “fuel cell stack,” as used herein, includes a distinct electrical entity which contains two end plates which are connected to power conditioning equipment and the power (i.e., electricity) output of the stack. Thus, in some configurations, the electrical power output from such a distinct electrical entity may be separately controlled from other stacks. The term “fuel cell stack” as used herein, also includes a part of the distinct electrical entity. For example, the stacks may share the same end plates. In this case, the stacks jointly comprise a distinct electrical entity. In this case, the electrical power output from both stacks cannot be separately controlled.

A method of forming a planar, electrolyte supported SOFC 1 shown in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 includes forming the cathode electrode 7 on a first side of a planar solid oxide electrolyte 5 and forming the cermet anode electrode 3 on a second side of the planar solid oxide electrode, such that a first portion of the anode electrode adjacent to the electrolyte contains a lower porosity and a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second portion of the anode electrode located distal from the electrolyte. The anode and the cathode may be formed in any order on the opposite sides of the electrolyte.

The anode electrode containing a plurality of sublayers shown in FIG. 1 may be formed by a screen printing method or by other suitable methods. For example, a first sublayer 13 containing a low porosity and a low nickel content can be screen printed on the electrolyte 5, followed by screen printing a second sublayer 23 with a higher porosity and a higher nickel content on the first sublayer 13.

The single layer anode electrode shown in FIG. 2 may be formed by ink jet printing or other suitable method. During the deposition, the nickel content and porosity is varied in different regions of the anode electrode to form an anode electrode with a graded composition. The graded composition may comprise a uniformly or a non-uniformly graded composition in a thickness direction of the anode electrode. In this case, the ratio of the nickel to doped ceria precursor material is increased as the thickness of the deposited layer increases. Furthermore, the anode composition can be graded uniformly or non-uniformly in a direction from a fuel inlet to a fuel outlet, such as by using plural nozzles which provide a different nickel/doped ceria ratio precursor materials to different regions of the anode electrode.

The anode electrode contains a doped ceria phase rich interface at a three phase boundary with the electrolyte and a nickel phase rich region adjacent to the “free” surface of the anode electrode which is distal from the electrolyte (i.e., the surface of the anode 3 which faces the interconnect 9). Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory, the present inventors believe that the greater stability of the anode electrodes of the embodiments of the present invention under conditions of very high fuel utilization can be primarily attributed to the presence of the ceria rich interface at the three phase boundary. The mixed ionic and electronic conducting nature of the doped ceria acts as a buffer to the oxygen ion flux through the electrolyte, thus mitigating the rapid conversion of nickel to nickel oxide. Mechanical damage of the electrode/electrolyte is avoided and upon the establishment of normal operating conditions, minimal polarization change in the anode is observed. Because the ceria-based ceramic has a lower electronic conductivity than nickel, the presence of a small amount of nickel improves the conductivity of the first sublayer(s) without causing any deleterious effect to the mechanical stability under fuel starvation conditions.

A typical example of a multi-sublayer anode electrode is provided in Table 1 where four sublayers are described. TABLE 1 Volume Sub- fraction Volume Volume fraction Thickness layer pores fraction Ni ceramic phase (microns) 1 10 5 85 of Ce_(0.8)Sm_(0.2)O₂ 7 2 30 15 55 of Ce_(0.8)Sm_(0.2)O₂ 7 3 40 30 30 of Ce_(0.8)Sm_(0.2)O₂ 10 4 50 40 10 Ce_(0.8)Sm_(0.2)O₂ 10

It should be noted that some of these sublayers can be combined into fewer sublayers resulting in steeper gradients. For example, sublayers 1 and 2 may be replaced with a single lower sublayer having the average value of porosity and nickel volume fraction of sublayers 1 and 2. Sublayers 3 and 4 may be replaced with a single upper sublayer having the average value of porosity and nickel volume fraction of sublayers 3 and 4.

FIG. 5A illustrates a micrograph of the first sublayer of an anode electrode which comprises of 10% by volume porosity (visible as the black phase in the Figure), 5% by volume of nickel (shown as the grey particles in the Figure) and the rest Ce_(0.8)Sm_(0.2)O₂.

A performance of a ten cell SOFC stack was tested. In this stack, the even numbered cells comprised the anode electrode having the two sublayers. The first sublayer comprised 20 wt. % NiO and 80 wt. % (Ce0.8Sm0.2) oxide (i.e., SDC). The second sublayer comprised 70 wt. % NiO and 30 wt. % (Ce0.8Sm0.2) oxide. The NiO was subsequently reduced to nickel. The electrolyte comprised SSZ and the cathode electrode comprises LSM. The odd numbered cells used for comparative examples were identical to the even numbered cells, except that they contained a single layer anode electrode comprising Ni and SDC without any grading of the composition. FIG. 5B is a micrograph of a cross section an anode electrode of one of the even SOFCs in the ten cell stack. FIGS. 5C and 5D, respectively, are micrographs of the top and bottom sublayers, respectively, of the anode electrode of the SOFC shown in FIG. 5B. As can be seen from these Figures, the top sublayer has a higher porosity than the bottom sublayer adjacent to the electrolyte.

FIG. 6A is a plot of cell potential in volts versus time for the ten cell stack. The temperature line shows the operating temperature measured on the right axis. The stack was operated at a temperature of 850 C with a steam to carbon ratio of 2.2, fuel utilization of 25%, a 20 A current and 1.0 slm fuel flow. The fuel comprised natural gas reformed in an external reformer. The stack was subjected to two active redox (i.e., fuel starvation) cycles during which the fuel was turned off while drawing current from the stack (points marked “Active Redox” in FIG. 6A). The first cycle was performed between 117 and 122 hours of operation of the stack and the second redox cycle was performed between 260 and 265 hours of operation. During each redox cycle, the fuel flow was reduced by 0.125 slm every hour while keeping other parameters constant until the fuel flow reached 0. For the second cycle, an extra power supply was used to draw more current from the stack than in the first cycle. During the first redox cycle, the current decreased to zero as the fuel flow was reduced to zero. During the second redox cycle, the current decreased to 3A as the fuel flow was reduced to zero. FIG. 6B is a close up of region “B” in FIG. 6A which shows the cell potential after the second redox cycle. The dashed line in FIG. 6B shows the fuel utilization on the right axis. As shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B, the even numbered cells (V02, V04, V06, V08, V10) survived both redox cycles with minimal degradation and exhibited performance similar to their initial performance prior to the redox cycles (i.e., within 10% of the initial performance). However, some anode delamination was observed in the even numbered cells in area near the fuel inlet where the current densities are relatively high. Thus, the use of the graded nickel content profile in the fuel flow direction shown in FIG. 2 may reduce the delamination near the fuel inlet. In contrast, the odd numbered cells of the comparative examples (V03, V05 and V07) suffered significant damage during the redox cycles. The first cell (V01) of the comparative example was the closest cell to the fuel inlet and was not polarized negative during the redox cycles suggesting that this cell received some residual fuel from the piping during the redox cycles. Thus, this cell suffered some damage, but did not suffer as much damage as the other cells of the comparative example.

An AC impedance data testing was performed three time during the experiment, after 93, 162 and 311 hours of operation, at points marked “ACIS” in FIG. 6A (i.e., before the first redox cycle, between the redox cycles and after the second redox cycle, respectively). FIGS. 7A, 7B and 7C show a bar graph of ohmic resistance (R_(s)) and time dependent resistance (R_(p)) of the ten cells (marked 01 to 10, with cells 07 and 09 not being measured at 311 hours) at 93, 162 and 311 hours, respectively. The testing was done at 40 A and 75% fuel utilization at 93 hours, and at 10 A and 20% fuel utilization at 162 and 311 hours. The testing was done at a lower current at 162 and 311 hours due to the damage to the cells of the comparative examples.

The comparison of the values of the R_(s) and R_(p) values between 90 and 162 hours (i.e., before and after the first redox cycle) showed that the value of R_(s) degraded on the average by −23.9% for the odd numbered cells of the comparative examples, but on the average by only −3.2% for the even numbered cells of the examples of the embodiments of the invention. Furthermore, R_(p) degraded on the average by −22% for the odd numbered cells of the comparative examples, but improved on the average by 1% for the even numbered cells of the examples of the embodiments of the invention. The negative degradation implies that the cells of the embodiments of the invention are fuel starvation tolerant and perform better than the cells of the comparative examples. Thus, the cells with the graded anode electrode compositions of the embodiments of the present invention suffer a degradation in R_(s) and R_(p) resistance of less than 5%, such as less than 1% in R_(p) degradation after a redox (i.e., fuel starvation while drawing current) cycle.

The absence of irreversible damage to the anodes of the embodiments of the invention after having suffered conditions of excessively high fuel utilization (in excess of 100%) show the fuel starvation tolerance of these anode compositions. Since events of high fuel utilization will systematically occur within the lifetime of a fuel cell system, the use of these anodes will increase reliability and lifetime of SOFC stacks.

The anode electrodes of the embodiments of the invention show a marked improvement in their capability to operate under conditions of extreme starvation. Furthermore, after the starvation event, the performance of these electrode is hardly affected. These electrodes are similar in performance to standard solid oxide fuel cell electrodes allowing the construction of more reliable stacks that are forgiving to system anomalies which can be translated to an extended lifetime of the stack. Finally, the anodes electrode of the embodiments of the invention should be stable in both SOFC and SORFC modes (i.e., in reversible fuel cell and electrolysis modes) of operation.

The foregoing description of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings or may be acquired from practice of the invention. The description was chosen in order to explain the principles of the invention and its practical application. It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by the claims appended hereto, and their equivalents. 

1. A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), comprising: a cathode electrode; a solid oxide electrolyte; and an anode electrode comprising a first portion and a second portion, such that the first portion is located between the electrolyte and the second portion; wherein: the anode electrode comprises a cermet comprising a nickel containing phase and a ceramic phase; and the first portion of the anode electrode contains a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second portion of the anode electrode.
 2. The SOFC of claim 1, wherein the ceramic phase comprises a doped ceria phase.
 3. The SOFC of claim 2, wherein the doped ceria phase comprises Sm, Gd or Y doped ceria phase.
 4. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein the doped ceria phase composition comprises Ce_((1-x))A_(x)O₂ where A comprises at least one of Sm, Gd, or Y, and x is greater than 0.1 but less than 0.4.
 5. The SOFC of claim 4, wherein the doped ceria phase comprises a Sm doped ceria phase.
 6. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein the first region comprises a first sublayer in contact with the electrolyte and the second region comprises a second sublayer located over the first sublayer.
 7. The SOFC of claim 6, wherein the first sublayer contains a lower porosity than the second sublayer.
 8. The SOFC of claim 7, wherein: the first sublayer contains between 1 and 15 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 5 and 30 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase; and the second sublayer contains between 20 and 60 volume percent nickel containing phase, between 20 and 60 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase.
 9. The SOFC of claim 7, wherein: the first sublayer contains between 5 and 25 weight percent of the nickel containing phase and between 75 and 95 weight percent of the doped ceria containing phase; and the second sublayer contains between 60 and 85 weight percent of the nickel containing phase and between 15 and 40 weight percent of the doped ceria containing phase.
 10. The SOFC of claim 9, wherein the nickel containing phase consists essentially of nickel or nickel oxide and the doped ceria containing phase consists essentially of scandia doped ceria.
 11. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein: the first region comprises a first sublayer in contact with the electrolyte and a second sublayer located over the first sublayer; the second region comprises a third sublayer located over the second sublayer and a fourth sublayer located over the third sublayer; a porosity of the anode electrode increases from the first sublayer to the fourth sublayer; the nickel containing phase content of the anode electrode increases from the first sublayer to the fourth sublayer; the first sublayer contains between 1 and 5 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 5 and 10 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase; the second sublayer contains between 6 and 20 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 20 and 40 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase; the third sublayer contains between 25 and 35 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 30 and 50 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase; and the fourth sublayer contains between 35 and 45 volume percent of the nickel containing phase, between 40 and 60 volume percent pores and remainder the doped ceria phase.
 12. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein the anode electrode comprises a single layer having a graded composition.
 13. The SOFC of claim 12, wherein a volume fraction of the nickel containing phase and a porosity in the anode electrode increases from an interface between the electrolyte and the anode electrode to a surface of the anode electrode distal from the electrolyte.
 14. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein the second portion of the anode electrode has a higher porosity than first portion of the anode electrode.
 15. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein the anode electrode contains a doped ceria phase rich interface at a three phase boundary with the electrolyte and a nickel phase rich region adjacent to a surface of the anode electrode which is distal from the electrolyte.
 16. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein a first region of the anode electrode located adjacent to a fuel inlet contains a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than a second region of the anode electrode located adjacent to a fuel outlet.
 17. The SOFC of claim 16, wherein: a first quadrant of the anode electrode adjacent to the fuel inlet and adjacent to the electrolyte contains a lowest ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase in the anode electrode; and a second quadrant of the anode electrode adjacent to the fuel outlet and distal from the electrolyte contains a highest ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase in the anode electrode.
 18. The SOFC of claim 3, wherein the electrolyte comprises scandia stabilized zirconia.
 19. The SOFC of claim 1, wherein the ceramic phase comprises a perovskite ceramic phase.
 20. A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), comprising: a cathode electrode; a solid oxide electrolyte; and an anode electrode comprising a cermet comprising a nickel containing phase and a doped ceria ceramic phase; wherein the anode electrode contains a doped ceria phase rich interface at a three phase boundary with the electrolyte and a nickel phase rich region adjacent to a surface of the anode electrode which is distal from the electrolyte.
 21. A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), comprising: a cathode electrode; a solid oxide electrolyte; and an anode electrode comprising a first portion and a second portion, such that the first portion is located between the electrolyte and the second portion; wherein: the anode electrode comprises a cermet comprising a nickel containing phase and a ceramic phase; and the first portion of the anode electrode contains a lower porosity than the second portion of the anode electrode.
 22. The SOFC of claim 21, wherein the first portion of the anode electrode contains a porosity of 5-30 volume percent and the second portion of the anode electrode contains a porosity of 31 to 60 volume percent.
 23. A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), comprising: a cathode electrode; a solid oxide electrolyte; and an anode electrode comprising a first region located adjacent to a fuel inlet and a second region located adjacent to a fuel outlet; wherein: the anode electrode comprises a cermet comprising a nickel containing phase and a ceramic phase; and wherein the first region of the anode electrode contains a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second region of the anode electrode.
 24. The SOFC of claim 23, wherein the first and the second regions are located adjacent to a surface of the anode electrode distal from the electrolyte.
 25. A method of making a SOFC, comprising: forming a cathode electrode on a first side of a planar solid oxide electrolyte; and forming a cermet anode electrode comprising a nickel containing phase and a doped ceria containing phase on a second side of the planar solid oxide electrode, such that a first portion of the anode electrode adjacent to the electrolyte contains a lower porosity and a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase than the second portion of the anode electrode located distal from the electrolyte.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the step of forming the anode electrode comprises screen printing a first sublayer on the electrolyte to form the first portion of the anode electrode and screen printing a second sublayer on the first sublayer to form the second portion of the anode electrode.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the step of forming the anode electrode comprises ink jet printing the anode electrode on the electrolyte to form a single layer anode electrode with a graded composition.
 28. The method of claim 25, wherein the graded composition comprises a uniformly or a non-uniformly graded composition in a thickness direction of the anode electrode.
 29. The method of claim 27, further comprising grading the composition of the anode electrode in a direction from a fuel inlet to a fuel outlet, such that the anode electrode comprises a lower ratio of the nickel containing phase to the ceramic phase in a first region adjacent to the fuel inlet than in a second region adjacent to the fuel outlet. 